Felix Cullen and his wife Mabel (with the permission of the Cullen family)
In 1914, Felix Cullen enrolled in Toronto, Ontario. A few months later, he was brutally awakened to the realities of trench warfare in France.
Life in the Trenches
Felix Cullen was born in 1889, in Renfrew, Ontario. A steelworker by trade, he enrolled in the Canadian Expeditionary Force in Toronto, on November 12, 1914. On May 13, 1915, he set sail for Europe and, a few weeks later found himself in France, in the trenches, under enemy fire. Felix Cullen fought at various places on the European Front, including St. Éloi and the Somme, where some of the war's most deadly battles took place.
Detailed Map of "No Man’s Land," in Front of the 2nd Canadian Division, 1916
The name "no man’s land" refers to the area located between Allied and enemy trenches, a dangerous area where soldiers only dared to venture after nightfall, when the darkness afforded them some protection from enemy fire. This map shows the craters caused by shell and heavy artillery explosions. During the first months of the war, the St. Éloi area was devastated by the hostilities. When the Canadians went to relieve the British and French forces, they found a spectacle of destruction and desolation. Felix Cullen refers to the St. Éloi craters in his personal diary.
Library and Archives Canada, NMC-0021462
From the first months of the war, trench warfare predominated. The military authorities adopted an offensive strategy, stressing control over the territory, maintained by building and capturing trenches. Life in the trenches was difficult, with much labourious and tedious work to be performed, interspersed with terrifying episodes that had the potential of killing thousands of soldiers in just a few hours. The trenches also had a devastating effect on the European countryside, and left their mark there for a long time to come.
Military file of soldier Felix Cullen
The military file of Felix Cullen is a typical example of the average soldier's file. It includes his attestation paper, record of service, casualty form, discharge certificate, war service gratuity, hospital cards, medical history sheet, medical case sheet, temperature chart, last pay certificate, dental history sheet and medical examination certificate upon leaving the service.
Library and Archives Canada' database "Personnel Records of the First World War" provides access to the military records of members of the Force.
Devastated Landscape
The existence of trenches and the massive deployment of artillery early in the First World War left a devastated, desolate landscape in its wake. At the end of the war, Canadian artist Mary Riter Hamilton travelled to Europe with the mandate to paint the European battlefields where Canadian soldiers had served so valiantly.
Even after the hostilities, the destruction of the landscape was still evident, as seen in these works by the artist showing Mount St. Éloi and the village of Kemmel.
Library and Archives Canada, PA-004447
The Bluff from the International Trench, Ypres, April and May 1919
In his personal diary, Felix Cullen mentions the trench shown in this photograph. The Ypres region, in Belgium, was the site of some of the deadliest battles in the First World War. The Canadian Expeditionary Force lost more that 6,700 soldiers here.
Mary Riter Hamilton, Library and Archives Canada, C-101318
Mont St-Éloi by Mary Riter Hamilton
The Mount St. Éloi region, in Belgium, was thoroughly ravaged during battles of the First World War. After the war, the artist Mary Riter Hamilton went to Europe to paint the battlefields where Canadians had served most brilliantly. This painting of Mount St. Éloi shows the devastation that pervaded the region, even in 1919.
Mary Riter Hamilton, Library and Archives Canada, C-104482
Chemin de Kemmel, Flandres by Mary Riter Hamilton
L'artiste Mary Riter Hamilton a peint la région de Kemmel en 1920. Voir en personne ces scènes accablantes a eu un effet important sur Mary Riter Hamilton qui, pour le reste de sa carrière artistique, ne parvint plus à peindre avec son ancienne intensité.
Library and Archives Canada, NMC-122995
Baths in the Field
Hygiene on the Front was a fundamental aspect of the disease prevention strategy. While soldiers could not wash when on duty in the trenches, these facilities were part of the military camps sanitary system.
Library and Archives Canada, RG9 III-C-3, vol. 4079, file 8, folder 12
Report from the Major of the 3rd Brigade Regarding the Weight a Soldier Carried in Combat,
May 17, 1917
This document gives an idea of how much weight an infantryman had to carry during trench warfare.
Library and Archives Canada, RG9 III-C-3, vol. 4079, file 8, folder 12
Letter from the Commanding Officer of the 15th Battalion to Headquarters Regarding the Weight of the Equipment and Weapons Carried by Soldiers, May 17, 1917
This documents cites the weight of the weapons carried by various types of soldiers.
Life in the trenches
The soldier's daily life in the trenches was rarely easy or pleasant. A constant effort was required to maintain the trenches, subject to inclement weather and enemy fire. The soldiers had to perform this work at night, to avoid being too exposed to their enemy's fire. Aside from the manual labour, the soldiers had to watch the enemy closely, and were also required to take part in reconnaissance operations or raids on enemy trenches, thereby incurring many risks to their lives.
Soldiers also had to live with the constant noise of shells and enemy fire, and their attacks, including gas warfare, a new innovation in the First World War. To carry out these tasks, the soldier was often issued weapons and other equipment that were up to twice the soldier's weight.
The soldiers also faced less tangible enemies than their German adversaries, in the form of vermin, unsanitary conditions and disease. Lice, the inability to remove their boots for several days in a row, bad weather and food that was limited in variety and quantity led to health problems, some specific to life in the trenches (chilblains, trench fever and Vincent's Angina, to name just a few).
This cave-dweller's life, as some soldiers saw it, led to the development of a trench culture, reflected among other things in music and in newspapers that were created for the soldiers, in which they expressed themselves through humour and poetry. By day, the soldiers often had moments to enjoy such reading, to play cards or write to their friends and family at home.
A number of songs emerged from this trench culture, in particular the very popular, Mademoiselle From Armentières.
Heavy Equipment
One strain in the soldier’s life was the weight of the equipment he had to carry. In addition to his uniform, a soldier had to carry his weapons, ammunition, steel helmet, gas mask, trenching tools and rations. In some cases, this amounted to twice the soldier’s weight.
Living dangerously
Trench warfare was something new. In spite of the training received in Canada and England, the reality of the trenches was entirely different. Instead of deep, clean and dry trenches, with wooden walkways and lockers to store their weapons, the Canadians lived in trenches that were essentially mud ditches, filled with stagnant water and sometimes even with the bodies of soldiers who had already fallen victim to the war.
These macabre memories were a constant reminder to the soldiers of the dangers they faced. Aside from the ever-present threat of shells, enemy fire could strike at any time killing a curious soldier who raised his head or a brave soldier who ventured into "no man’s land." In 1916, another mortal danger was a reality; gas attacks became one of the deadliest and most painful aspects of life in the trenches.
While measures were taken to improve protection for the soldiers, including the use of the steel helmet and the gas mask, survival in the trenches depended on the soldiers being cautious and their willingness to follow the rules.
Library and Archives Canada, PA-001326
Trench on the Canadian Front with Funk-Holes, May 1917
This trench more accurately reflects the reality Canadian soldiers experienced on the battlefield. Some trenches were little more than muddy ditches, full of cold and stagnant water.
Library and Archives Canada, PA-110424
Communication Trench, Camp Barriefield, Ontario, October 1916
This communication trench (leading from the rear to the forward part of the Front) is a training trench built at the military camp in Barriefield, Ontario. This trench is very clean, with wooden walkways and lockers to store weapons. Very few soldiers ever saw trenches in such a pristine condition on the battlefield.
Library and Archives Canada, PA-005001
Views Taken at the Headquarters of the Canadian Army Veterinary Corps, Shornecliffe
With the increasing number of gas attacks, gas masks were distributed to the Canadian troops. Gas masks were provided for the horses as well, who also suffered from the toxic fumes.
Library and Archives Canada, MG30-E149, vol. 2, Agar Adamson War Letters, March 1915
Message from Captain Agar Adamson Regarding Precautions against Gas Attacks, March 1915
At the time of the first gas attacks, the only way soldiers could protect themselves was by holding their handkerchief firmly over their nose and mouth. To be truly effective, some soldiers claimed that the handkerchief should first be covered in urine.
Library and Archives Canada, MG30-E149, vol. 4, Agar Adamson War Letters, May 1916
Report from the Surgeon General of the 2nd Army about the Benefits of Wearing a Steel Helmet, March 7, 1916
Initially, soldiers found the steel helmet heavy and uncomfortable and did not want to wear it. Analyses and experienced showed, however, that wearing the steel helmet could save a soldier's life, which convinced the men to wear it.
Library and Archives Canada, RG9 III-C-3, vol. 4142, file 7, folder 6
Trench Standing Orders, September 29, 1915
Following the instructions given in the trench standing orders could mean the difference between life and death for a soldier in the trenches.
Vermin
Diagram of Fumigation Chambers
One way the military authorities reacted to the problem of vermin was by devising and installing fumigation chambers where the soldiers' clothes were placed after being washed. In theory, fumigation was supposed to eliminate parasites, but soldiers reported that it did not always have the desired result. These fumigation chambers were in the camps, behind the trenches.
Library and Archives Canada, NMC-0112996
One of the most unpleasant aspects of the soldier’s life was vermin, specifically lice. A soldier could find himself covered in lice within forty-eight hours of his arrival on the Front. Beyond the daily annoyance, the lice caused more serious health problems. Near the end of the war, studies showed that lice were usually responsible for trench fever, an illness striking a great many soldiers. The military authorities had to employ engineering know-how to help remedy the situation.
Staying healthy
The soldiers faced an enemy less tangible than the danger of German weapons, but no less dangerous, namely, disease. The conditions in the trenches, the dampness, cold, the lack of variety and insufficient quantity of food led to a myriad of health problems, the most serious being trench foot. Trench foot was a condition caused by wearing boots for extended periods in wet and cold trenches. Never dry, soldiers suffered from chilblains on their feet that made the skin swell and crack. In the worst cases, they lost toes or even the entire foot. The military authorities very quickly took measures to prevent this type of problem.
In a similar vein, some soldiers suffered trench mouth or Vincent’s Angina, an infection caused essentially by germs transmitted in the food, poorly cleaned utensils or sharing of pipes or cigarettes. Sanitary measures were taken to prevent this all too frequent problem in the trenches.
Library and Archives Canada, PA-149311
First World War Soldier with Trench Foot (No Doubt a Canadian), France, 1917
This photo shows an extreme case of trench foot.
Library and Archives Canada, RG9 III-B-2, vol. 3615, file (25/4/2-25/6/2)
Letter from Lawson & Co. to the Director General of Medical Services Regarding Trench Fever and Lice, March 25, 1918
Once studies revealed that lice were largely responsible for trench fever, numerous companies tried to convince military authorities of the quality of their products to eliminate this parasite. This letter from Lawson & Co. stressed the merits of their product Para-Quit.
Library and Archives Canada, RG9 III-B-2, vol. 3615, file 25/7/1-25/7/6
General Routine Order Regarding the Prevention of Chilled Feet in Soldiers, October 11, 1915
As of 1915, the great many problems caused by trench foot demanded action on the part of military authorities, who sought to prevent the problem by establishing orders on the precautions to be taken to prevent frostbite. Rubbing the legs and feet with whale oil was a recognized method of keeping the limbs warm for a longer time.
Library and Archives Canada, RG9 III-B-2, vol. 3615, file 25/7/1-25/7/6
Report by Colonel G.L. Foster, Surgeon General, Regarding Soldiers Suffering from Trench Foot, November 11, 1915
This report about the occurrence of trench foot among the ranks and the prevention of this problem shows how significant this medical condition was in the eyes of military authorities.
Library and Archives Canada, RG9 III-B-2, vol. 3615, file 25/4/2-25/6/2
Document by Surgeon General Regarding Vincent's Angina, ca. 1917
This document describes the problem of Vincent's Angina and its chief causes, namely, the failure to disinfect eating and drinking utensils and the sharing of pipes or cigarettes. Life in the trenches made soldiers especially susceptible to this type of problem since it was impossible, under such conditions, to wash dishes or obtain other tobacco products.
Library and Archives Canada, MG30-E149, vol. 4, Agar Adamson War Letters, May 1916
Report from the Surgeon General of the 2nd Army about the Benefits of Wearing a Steel Helmet, March 7, 1916
Initially, soldiers found the steel helmet heavy and uncomfortable and did not want to wear it. Analyses and experienced showed, however, that wearing the steel helmet could save a soldier's life, which convinced the men to wear it.
Library and Archives Canada, RG9 III-B-2, vol. 3615, file 25/4/2-25/6/2
Circular Letter Regarding the Disinfection of Utensils, September 22, 1917
This circular letter cited in the Surgeon General's report on Vincent's Angina describes the sanitary measures to be taken to disinfect eating and drinking utensils in order to prevent this medical problem.
Trench Culture
Too exposed to work or attack the enemy during the day, the soldiers used that time to try to sleep, to read, write to their friends and families or play cards. The difficult life in the trenches, the boredom, danger, close quarters with other soldiers and the isolation from their friends and families led to the development of a trench culture. This popular culture was reflected in trench newspapers, in which the soldiers often ironically expressed their feelings about the war and their presence on the Front. Some trench newspapers, such as The Busy Beaver, were full of poems written by soldiers about their daily life and troubles on the Front. This trench culture was immortalized in many songs, such as the very popular Mademoiselle From Armentières.
Library and Archives Canada, RG9 III, vol. 5081, file The Busy Beaver
Poem from the Trench Newspaper The Busy Beaver, Christmas Issue, 1916
This anonymous poem, entitled Trench Rhymes, is a typical example of the type of ironic poetry the soldiers published in trench newspapers. These papers reported some news, but above all provided a medium in which soldiers could express themselves, becoming a very popular form of entertainment.
Excerpt from the Popular Song Mademoiselle From Armentières
This song was especially popular among First World War soldiers. Library and Archives Canada, Winterich, John T., Mademoiselle from Armentières, Mount Vernon, NY, Peter Pauper Press, 1953, 60 p. John T. Winterich, 1953. Rights for digital reproduction and communication to the public obtained by licence issued by the Copyright Board of Canada in cooperation with the Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (CANCOPY). Any alteration, further distribution or sale of this excerpt, in any form, is strictly prohibited.